1 Introduction

Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) are among the most widely cultivated and consumed staple crops globally, ranking fourth after rice, wheat, and maize. This crop plays a critical role in ensuring food security due to its high productivity and ability to grow in diverse climates and soil types. Potatoes offer significant nutritional value, providing essential vitamins like vitamin C, minerals, fiber, and carbohydrates, making them a vital source of sustenance for millions of people worldwide. Furthermore, potatoes have substantial economic importance, particularly in developing countries, where they serve as both a primary food source and an essential income-generating crop. In countries such as China, Bangladesh, and Brazil, potatoes contribute significantly to the agricultural economy, with China leading global potato production (Zhang et al., 2017).The perennial area of potato in Zhejiang Province of China is 2.7×10⁴ ha, with an average yield of 20 kg/ha, while the perennial area of potato in Deqing County is about 200 ha, with an average yield of 25 kg/ha.

While potatoes are a robust crop, numerous challenges impact their yield and quality. Nutrient management is a primary concern in potato production, particularly the supply of essential macronutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). The timing and method of nutrient application, along with environmental factors like soil health and water availability, can drastically affect crop output. Inadequate fertilization practices often lead to reduced yields, while over-fertilization poses environmental risks, such as nutrient leaching and water contamination. Additionally, the potato plant's heavy reliance on micronutrients like zinc and magnesium further complicates fertilization strategies. In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, poor soil fertility is a significant limiting factor in achieving optimal yields (Shunka et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021).

This study analyzes the essential nutrients required for potato growth, assesses the advantages of advanced fertilization techniques such as precision agriculture and controlled-release fertilizers, and examines the environmental and economic impacts of fertilization practices to provide a comprehensive guide for optimizing potato cultivation, offering actionable insights for farmers to increase potato yields while reducing environmental impact.

2 Nutrient Requirements for Potato Crops

2.1 Key macronutrients (N, P, K) necessary for potato growth

Nitrogen (N) is an essential nutrient for potato growth, playing a critical role in leaf development, protein synthesis, and photosynthesis. As shown in Figure 1, different nitrogen application rates significantly affect the tuber yield of various potato cultivars across locations. For example, the Atlantic cultivar grown in Minas Gerais (MG) shows a marked response to nitrogen, with yield peaking around 150 kg/ha of nitrogen and then leveling off. Similarly, the Ágata cultivar, grown in both Minas Gerais and Bahia (BA), also shows increased yields with nitrogen application, though the yield response curve varies slightly by location, reflecting the influence of environmental factors on nitrogen efficiency. For example, in Deqing Zhejiang, the yield of potato should reach more than 45 t/ha, and the amount of nitrogen fertilizer should be as high as 300 kg/ha, which is related to the low level of local soil fertility and more rainfall in the growing season, which takes away more nitrogen fertilizer.These findings highlight the importance of nitrogen management: adequate nitrogen increases chlorophyll content and photosynthetic efficiency, thereby boosting yield. However, excessive nitrogen can lead to excessive vegetative growth, delaying tuber formation and affecting tuber quality and storage capacity. Therefore, the proper timing and amount of nitrogen application are crucial to maximize its benefits and avoid negative impacts. Conversely, insufficient nitrogen can cause leaf yellowing and stunted growth, ultimately reducing yield and tuber quality (Madhumathi et al., 2020).

Figure 1 Total yield of potato tubers of cultivars (A) Atlantic and (B) Ágata (B) grown in Unaí, Minas Gerais, and (C) Ágata grown in Mucugê, Bahia, under different N rates (Adapted from Madhumathi et al., 2020) Image caption: This figure shows the total yield of potato tubers from two cultivars, "Atlantic" and "Ágata," grown under varying nitrogen (N) application rates in two locations: Unaí, Minas Gerais, and Mucugê, Bahia. Nitrogen rates positively influence yield up to a certain level, with slight location- and cultivar-specific differences in the response curves (Adapted from Madhumathi et al., 2020)

Phosphorus (P) is essential for the development of the root system, particularly during the early stages of potato growth, and for energy transfer during tuber formation. Phosphorus helps in cell division and is vital for nucleic acid synthesis, contributing to tuber size and quality. Adequate phosphorus levels support better root establishment and tuber bulking, increasing both the size and number of tubers (Torabian et al., 2021). Insufficient phosphorus supply can delay tuberization and result in smaller, lower-quality tubers. Therefore, it is essential to assess soil phosphorus levels early in the growing season and apply phosphorus fertilizers accordingly.

Potassium (K) is essential for enhancing the stress resistance of potato plants and improving tuber quality. Increased soil potassium content significantly affects tuber yield across soils with varying organic matter levels. Potassium regulates water metabolism within the plant and aids in carbohydrate metabolism, which increases tuber dry matter content and specific gravity, thereby enhancing cooking quality and storage life. Additionally, potassium strengthens the plant's resistance to diseases and environmental stresses like drought. Research indicates that potassium application can increase tuber dry matter and starch content, improving overall tuber quality (Torabian et al., 2021). However, potassium requirements vary based on soil type and environmental conditions, necessitating precise management to meet the optimal needs under different soil organic matter levels.

2.2 Micronutrient Requirements and Their Role in Potato Development

Zinc (Zn) is a key micronutrient required for enzyme activation and the synthesis of proteins and starch in potato plants. Zinc is crucial for tuber formation, improving the plant’s disease resistance and photosynthetic efficiency, which leads to better tuber growth. Studies have shown that the application of zinc fertilizers can significantly improve potato yield, as well as enhance the nutrient content of tubers, such as increasing protein and mineral concentrations (Sarker et al., 2019). Zinc deficiency can lead to necrotic spots on leaves, stunted plant growth, and a marked reduction in yield, making it critical to ensure sufficient zinc availability throughout the growth cycle.

Magnesium (Mg) is an integral part of the chlorophyll molecule and plays a key role in photosynthesis, supporting the plant’s ability to capture light energy and convert it into biomass. Magnesium also activates numerous enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and protein synthesis. In potatoes, magnesium not only enhances photosynthetic efficiency but also contributes to higher starch content in the tubers, improving their quality. This is especially important under conditions of high sunlight or drought, where magnesium can increase the plant's resistance to environmental stresses (El-Sayed et al., 2019). Magnesium deficiency can result in chlorosis (yellowing of leaves) and reduced growth, which negatively affects tuber development and yield.

Iron (Fe) is involved in critical processes such as electron transport within plant cells, playing a significant role in energy production and photosynthesis. Iron is also important in respiration, enabling efficient energy use within the plant. Adequate iron levels help improve photosynthetic activity, thereby increasing potato yield and quality. Iron deficiencies lead to chlorosis, particularly in young leaves, reducing photosynthetic efficiency and, ultimately, the growth and development of tubers (Hamnér et al., 2017). Therefore, iron supplementation, when necessary, ensures healthier growth and better-quality tubers.

2.3 Variability in Nutrient Needs Based on Growth Stages and Environmental Factors

During the early stages of potato growth, nitrogen demand is at its highest, as the plant requires a substantial amount of nitrogen to support the rapid development of leaves and stems. Nitrogen in this stage not only boosts chlorophyll production but also enhances photosynthesis, ensuring sufficient energy is available for the development of the plant. However, an excess of nitrogen during this period can lead to excessive vegetative growth, delaying the formation of tubers, which may result in reduced yield. Therefore, nitrogen should be applied in moderation, based on soil conditions and plant growth assessments (Oliveira et al., 2020).

As potatoes progress into the tuberization stage, the demand for phosphorus and potassium increases. Phosphorus is crucial for the development and enlargement of tubers, ensuring that the tubers reach optimal size and are uniform in shape. Potassium, on the other hand, aids in improving tuber dry matter content and starch accumulation, directly influencing the cooking quality and storage potential of the potatoes. Insufficient phosphorus or potassium at this stage can result in small, misshapen tubers that do not meet market quality standards (Torabian et al., 2021). Therefore, phosphorus and potassium application should be carefully managed during the tuberization period.

Environmental factors, such as soil type, climate, and water availability, also play a significant role in determining the nutrient needs of potato plants. The texture and organic matter content of the soil can influence how nutrients are retained and made available to the plant. For instance, sandy soils tend to experience greater leaching, requiring more frequent nutrient applications, while clay soils may retain nutrients for longer periods. Additionally, climatic factors like temperature and rainfall affect nutrient uptake rates. Cooler temperatures can slow nutrient absorption, while drought conditions may limit nutrient mobility in the soil (Koch et al., 2019). These variables necessitate a flexible, site-specific nutrient management strategy to optimize potato growth and yield under varying conditions.

3 Soil Testing and Nutrient Management Planning

3.1 Importance of soil testing to determine nutrient levels and deficiencies

Soil testing is an essential tool for identifying the nutrient status of agricultural land. By analyzing the levels of key nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), as well as micronutrients like zinc (Zn) and magnesium (Mg), farmers can make informed decisions about fertilization. Regular soil testing allows for a detailed understanding of soil fertility, helping to determine which nutrients are deficient or present in excess. This ensures that crops receive the right amount of nutrients at the right time, improving growth and yield potential. The absence of soil testing can lead to either nutrient deficiencies, which limit growth, or nutrient excesses, which can cause environmental problems such as water contamination from leaching (Mohamed et al., 2023).

Beyond identifying nutrient levels, soil testing can also provide information on pH, soil structure, and organic matter content. These factors significantly affect nutrient availability to plants. For example, in soils with low pH (acidic soils), certain nutrients like phosphorus may become less available, reducing crop productivity. Soil testing helps to detect these issues, allowing farmers to adjust pH levels by applying lime or other amendments to optimize nutrient availability (Hedley, 2015). Regular soil testing not only helps maintain optimal soil health but also ensures that the correct balance of nutrients is achieved throughout the growing season.

Moreover, soil testing is particularly important for sustainable farming practices. By applying nutrients based on soil testing results, farmers can avoid the over-application of fertilizers, which often leads to nutrient runoff and environmental degradation. In regions where agriculture is a major contributor to nutrient pollution, such as nitrogen leaching into groundwater or phosphorus runoff into rivers and lakes, soil testing plays a crucial role in environmental protection. Studies have shown that nutrient management plans based on soil testing can reduce the need for fertilizers by as much as 30%, lowering costs and mitigating environmental risks (Madhumathi et al., 2020).

3.2 Use of Nutrient Management Plans Tailored to Specific Soil Conditions

Once soil testing results are obtained, the next step is to develop nutrient management plans that are tailored to the specific conditions of the soil. Each field or section of land can have varying nutrient needs depending on factors such as soil type, organic matter content, moisture levels, and the specific crop being grown. A one-size-fits-all approach to fertilization is often inefficient, as different areas of the same farm may require different amounts of nutrients. For example, sandy soils tend to leach nutrients more quickly and may require more frequent but smaller applications of fertilizers, while clay-rich soils hold nutrients longer but may need careful management to avoid waterlogging (Shubha, 2018).

Nutrient management plans help optimize the timing, placement, and quantity of fertilizer applications to match the specific needs of the soil and the crop. These plans are based on the crop's growth stages and nutrient requirements, ensuring that the plants receive the necessary nutrients when they need them most. For instance, nitrogen is often applied in split doses, with the first application at planting and subsequent applications timed to critical growth stages, such as during tuber initiation for potatoes. This approach minimizes the risk of nutrient loss due to leaching or runoff, ensuring that nutrients are available when the crop is most capable of absorbing them (Mohamed et al., 2023).

Moreover, nutrient management plans can incorporate organic fertilizers, such as compost or manure, alongside synthetic fertilizers. This integrated approach provides a more balanced nutrient supply, improving soil health and structure over the long term. The combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers not only boosts crop productivity but also enhances the soil's ability to retain moisture and nutrients, reducing the need for additional fertilizer inputs in the future (Shubha, 2018). Tailoring these plans to specific soil conditions helps improve nutrient use efficiency, leading to higher yields and more sustainable farming practices.

In Deqing, Zhejiang China, the technology of soil testing and formulated fertilization has been implemented for more than a decade. In 2024, the county implemented 280 soil sampling and testing points for major crops, and the coverage rate of soil testing and formulated fertilization technology was 93%. Under the premise of stable yield of potato, the annual fertilizer application per hectare decreased by 7.5 kg, and the effect of chemical fertilizer reduction was obvious.

3.3 Precision Agriculture Techniques for Targeted Fertilization

Precision agriculture techniques offer innovative solutions for improving the accuracy and efficiency of fertilization by using real-time data to make site-specific decisions. Technologies such as GPS, drones, and wireless sensor networks allow farmers to assess variations in soil and crop health across different parts of a field, enabling them to apply fertilizers in a more targeted manner. This approach contrasts with traditional uniform application methods, where the same amount of fertilizer is applied across an entire field, regardless of the varying needs of different areas. By using precision agriculture, farmers can ensure that nutrients are applied where they are most needed, reducing waste and enhancing crop growth (Madhumathi et al., 2020).

One key technology used in precision agriculture is remote sensing, which involves collecting data from satellites, drones, or ground-based sensors to monitor soil moisture, nutrient levels, and plant health. This data is processed using advanced algorithms to create detailed maps of a field’s nutrient status, helping farmers identify areas that require more or less fertilizer. For example, a drone equipped with multispectral sensors can capture images that reveal variations in nitrogen content across a potato field. This information allows farmers to adjust their fertilization strategies, applying nitrogen only to areas where deficiencies are detected, thus preventing over-fertilization in parts of the field where nitrogen levels are already sufficient (Peng et al., 2021).

In addition to drones and sensors, precision agriculture also utilizes decision support systems (DSS) and software that help farmers make data-driven fertilization decisions. These tools generate prescription maps based on soil and crop data, allowing farmers to apply fertilizers at variable rates across a field. For instance, areas of the field that are identified as nutrient-deficient receive higher doses of fertilizers, while nutrient-rich areas receive less or none at all. This targeted fertilization approach reduces input costs, increases yields, and minimizes the environmental impact of farming practices by reducing the risk of nutrient runoff and leaching into water bodies (Hedley, 2015). Through precision agriculture, farmers can achieve higher nutrient use efficiency and sustainable crop production.

4 Nitrogen Management in Potato Production

4.1 Impact of nitrogen on potato growth and yield

Nitrogen (N) is an essential nutrient for potato growth, directly influencing vegetative growth and tuber formation. As shown in the figure, enhanced-efficiency fertilizers (EEFs) can optimize nitrogen management by increasing nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), boosting yield, and reducing nitrogen losses. Nitrogen is crucial for chlorophyll synthesis, which drives photosynthesis and provides the energy necessary for tuber growth. Adequate nitrogen supply can expand leaf area, promote stem growth, and enhance photosynthetic efficiency, leading to an increase in the number and size of tubers. Studies indicate that optimal nitrogen levels can significantly increase yield and improve tuber quality traits, such as tuber size, dry matter content, and specific gravity, all of which are essential for commercial potato production (Ayyub et al., 2019).

However, the effect of nitrogen on potato yield is not linear. Excessive nitrogen application can disturb the balance between vegetative growth and tuber development. When nitrogen is oversupplied, potato plants often produce more leaf and stem biomass, delaying tuber formation and reducing overall yield. Additionally, excessive nitrogen may decrease tuber quality, as indicated by lower dry matter content, increased water content, and increased susceptibility to damage and diseases such as late blight (Rens et al., 2015).

Conversely, nitrogen deficiency can limit plant growth, reduce leaf area, and hinder tuber development. Insufficient nitrogen leads to chlorosis (reduced chlorophyll), lower photosynthesis rates, and reduced tuber size and number, which in turn decreases marketable yield. Figure 2 highlights the role of different types of enhanced-efficiency fertilizers (such as polymer-coated urea, PCU) in improving nitrogen use efficiency while reducing nitrogen losses (e.g., lowering N₂O emissions and NO^3- leaching). Through appropriate nitrogen application rates and the use of EEFs, effective nitrogen management can balance vegetative and tuber growth, ensuring high yields and high-quality tubers (Pan et al., 2023).

Figure 2 Effects of Enhanced Efficiency Fertilizer (EEF) on Potato Yield Increase and Nitrogen (N) Loss Reduction (Adapted from Pan et al., 2023) Image caption: Demonstrates that enhanced-efficiency fertilizers, especially polymer-coated urea (PCU), significantly improve potato productivity metrics (yield, N uptake, NUE) while effectively reducing nitrogen losses through decreased N2O emissions, nitrate leaching, and ammonia volatilization. Different types of EEFs vary in effectiveness, highlighting the importance of selecting the appropriate formulation based on specific environmental and productivity goals (Adapted from Pan et al., 2023)

4.2 Nitrogen Application Timing and Split-Dose Strategies

The timing of nitrogen application is critical to maximizing nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and minimizing nitrogen losses through leaching or volatilization. Splitting nitrogen applications into multiple doses throughout the growing season is an effective strategy to ensure that nitrogen is available to the plant when it is most needed. Typically, nitrogen is applied at planting, followed by additional applications at key growth stages such as emergence and tuber initiation. This approach ensures that nitrogen is available during the plant’s most active growth periods, reducing the risk of nitrogen being lost before the plant can absorb it (Rens et al., 2018).

Research has demonstrated that split-dose strategies significantly improve both yield and tuber quality. For example, applying a portion of nitrogen at planting, followed by additional applications during the crop’s critical growth stages, has been shown to optimize nitrogen uptake and tuber formation. In studies conducted in Florida, split nitrogen applications at planting, emergence, and tuber initiation resulted in higher yields compared to a single nitrogen application. Moreover, delaying too much nitrogen application until later stages, such as tuber initiation, can reduce the plant’s ability to utilize nitrogen efficiently, leading to nitrogen losses and suboptimal yields (Rens et al., 2016).

Slow-release nitrogen fertilizers are another tool to improve nitrogen timing. These fertilizers gradually release nitrogen into the soil over time, providing a more consistent nitrogen supply throughout the growing season. This can reduce the need for multiple applications while minimizing nitrogen losses due to leaching or volatilization. By synchronizing nitrogen release with crop demand, slow-release fertilizers help increase nitrogen use efficiency and improve tuber yield and quality (Shrestha et al., 2023).

4.3 Risks of over-fertilization, nitrogen leaching, and environmental concerns

Over-fertilization with nitrogen poses significant environmental risks, particularly in regions where potatoes are grown on sandy soils that are prone to leaching. When nitrogen is applied in excess of crop requirements, it is often not absorbed by the plants and instead leaches into groundwater as nitrate (NO₃). This nitrate contamination of water sources can pose serious health risks, such as methemoglobinemia, or blue baby syndrome, in infants, and has broader implications for water quality and ecosystem health (Yang et al., 2020).

In addition to nitrate leaching, over-fertilization increases the risk of greenhouse gas emissions, particularly nitrous oxide (N₂O), a potent greenhouse gas. Nitrous oxide emissions occur when excess nitrogen in the soil undergoes microbial processes such as denitrification. This not only contributes to climate change but also represents a loss of valuable nitrogen that could have been utilized by the crop. Practices such as precision nitrogen management, where nitrogen is applied in variable rates based on real-time crop sensing, can help mitigate these risks by ensuring that nitrogen is only applied where and when it is needed (Bohman et al., 2020).

Furthermore, poor nitrogen management can also lead to reduced soil health over time. Excess nitrogen can acidify the soil, disrupt the balance of microbial communities, and degrade soil structure, all of which negatively impact long-term crop productivity. Adopting practices such as integrated nutrient management, where synthetic nitrogen fertilizers are supplemented with organic sources like manure or cover crops, can help mitigate the environmental impacts of nitrogen overuse while maintaining soil health and improving crop yields (Komatsuzaki, 2017).

5 Phosphorus and Potassium Optimization

5.1 Role of phosphorus in root development and its influence on tuber formation.

Phosphorus (P) is a key nutrient that plays a vital role in the root development of potato plants, which is critical for nutrient absorption and water uptake. During the early stages of potato growth, phosphorus promotes the expansion of the root system, enabling the plant to establish a strong foundation for later growth stages. This, in turn, supports the overall growth of the plant and the development of tubers. Phosphorus is involved in energy transfer within the plant, particularly in the form of ATP, which is necessary for cell division and growth, including root elongation. Studies have shown that the application of phosphorus improves root length and the number of root hairs, enhancing the plant’s ability to absorb nutrients and water from the soil (Setu et al., 2022).

Furthermore, phosphorus plays a crucial role in the process of tuber initiation and development. Tuber formation is highly dependent on the availability of phosphorus, as it influences the translocation of sugars and other carbohydrates to the developing tubers. Phosphorus deficiency during the critical stages of tuber formation can result in poor tuber development, reduced tuber size, and lower yields. Field trials have demonstrated that phosphorus application significantly enhances tuber initiation, with optimal results observed when phosphorus is applied early in the growing season (Jasim et al., 2020).

Phosphorus also improves the overall quality of potato tubers by enhancing the development of cell membranes and energy storage within the tubers. Proper phosphorus nutrition has been associated with improved starch content in the tubers, which is a critical quality parameter for both processing and table potatoes. A balanced phosphorus supply not only boosts tuber yield but also contributes to uniform tuber size and improved marketability (Misgina, 2016).

5.2 Importance of Potassium for Stress Resistance and Tuber Quality

Potassium (K) is an essential macronutrient for potatoes, playing a key role in stress resistance and the overall quality of tubers. Potassium regulates water movement within the plant by controlling the opening and closing of stomata, thus maintaining optimal hydration and reducing water loss during periods of drought stress. This is particularly important in areas prone to dry conditions, as potassium helps enhance the plant's drought tolerance by improving root permeability and water uptake efficiency. Potassium has also been shown to improve disease resistance in potato crops by strengthening cell walls and reducing the susceptibility of plants to pathogens (Bahar et al., 2021).

In addition to its role in stress resistance, potassium plays a significant part in determining the quality of potato tubers. Adequate potassium levels improve the transport of carbohydrates to the tubers, promoting larger tuber size and higher starch content. Studies indicate that potassium application increases the dry matter content of tubers, which is a key quality parameter for both processing potatoes and fresh market varieties. Potassium has also been linked to reduced sugar concentrations in tubers, which is beneficial for frying quality, as it reduces the tendency for tubers to turn dark during frying processes such as making chips or fries (Torabian et al., 2021).

Moreover, potassium helps extend the shelf life of harvested potatoes by improving the structural integrity of the tubers, reducing the incidence of physiological disorders, and enhancing storage quality. Potatoes grown with sufficient potassium levels show better resistance to bruising and have improved vitamin C content, which contributes to both the nutritional value and the marketability of the tubers. Thus, potassium not only boosts yield but also ensures that the harvested potatoes meet market quality standards (Bhattarai, 2018).

5.3 Best Practices for Phosphorus and Potassium Application Rates and Timing

To maximize potato yield and quality, it is important to apply phosphorus and potassium at the right rates and times during the growing season. Research suggests that phosphorus should be applied at planting or pre-planting to ensure that the nutrient is readily available during the critical early stages of root development and tuber initiation. Studies have found that phosphorus application rates of 60–100 kg P₂O₅ per hectare are optimal for promoting root growth and enhancing tuber yields, with higher rates providing diminishing returns. Phosphorus is most effective when banded close to the seed or root zone, as this placement improves nutrient uptake efficiency by the developing roots (Bykin et al., 2021).

For potassium, the recommended rates vary depending on soil conditions and crop demand, but application rates of 100–200 kg K₂O per hectare are commonly used in potato production. Potassium can be applied either pre-planting or as a side-dressing during the growing season. Split applications of potassium are recommended in areas with high leaching potential to ensure a consistent supply of potassium throughout the crop's development. Potassium sulfate (K₂SO₄) and potassium chloride (KCl) are commonly used sources of potassium, with potassium sulfate preferred in some regions due to its lower salt index and reduced risk of chloride toxicity (Ali et al., 2021).

The timing of potassium application is also crucial for maximizing its benefits. Potassium should be available throughout the tuber bulking period, which typically occurs after the initial vegetative growth phase. Applying potassium at or before tuber initiation ensures that the nutrient is available when the plant’s demand is highest, leading to larger tubers and higher overall yields. Potassium should also be applied in soils with adequate moisture to enhance nutrient mobility and uptake by the roots (Misgina et al., 2016).

6 Organic vs. Inorganic Fertilizers

6.1 Benefits of organic fertilizers, such as compost and manure, in potato cultivation

Organic fertilizers, such as compost and manure, play a vital role in improving soil structure and fertility while enhancing potato growth and yield. Organic matter, when added to the soil, helps improve soil water-holding capacity, increases nutrient availability, and supports the development of beneficial microbial communities. Compost and manure release nutrients slowly over time, providing a sustained nutrient supply to the potato plants, reducing the risk of nutrient leaching, and improving soil organic carbon levels. Studies have shown that compost application, such as Kazi compost, can reduce the need for inorganic fertilizers by up to 25% while still boosting yield and tuber quality (Islam et al., 2021).

In addition to enhancing soil fertility, organic fertilizers such as poultry and cattle manure provide essential micronutrients, such as zinc and magnesium, which are often absent in inorganic fertilizers. These micronutrients contribute to the overall health of the potato plant, leading to improved resistance to diseases and pests. Organic fertilizers also help to lower soil acidity, which promotes better nutrient uptake by potato roots. Poultry manure has been highlighted as particularly effective in increasing potato yield and quality, with improved tuber size, dry matter content, and nutrient uptake (Abeshu and Wollega, 2020).

Moreover, organic fertilizers play a significant role in sustaining long-term soil fertility. Over time, organic matter from manure and compost helps build soil structure, leading to increased soil aeration and better root development in potato crops. The slow decomposition of organic materials provides a steady source of nutrients throughout the growing season, contributing to better nutrient cycling and reducing the need for frequent fertilizer applications (Ahmed and Shahien, 2018).

6.2 Comparison of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizer Effectiveness on Yield and Quality

The effectiveness of organic and inorganic fertilizers on potato yield and quality has been widely studied, with each fertilizer type offering distinct advantages. Inorganic fertilizers, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), are known for their quick nutrient release, leading to rapid plant growth and higher yields in the short term. However, when used excessively, inorganic fertilizers can lead to soil degradation, nutrient imbalances, and increased environmental risks such as nitrate leaching. In contrast, organic fertilizers, such as farmyard manure and compost, improve soil structure and enhance nutrient availability over time, leading to sustained improvements in soil fertility and crop productivity (Gelaye, 2023).

Several studies have found that combining organic and inorganic fertilizers provides the best results in terms of both yield and quality. For instance, applying poultry manure along with inorganic nitrogen fertilizer has been shown to significantly improve tuber yield, dry matter content, and starch levels compared to using inorganic fertilizer alone. Organic fertilizers improve the soil's water retention and nutrient-holding capacity, which helps sustain higher yields even when inorganic fertilizer use is reduced (Alemayehu et al., 2020).

The quality of potato tubers, including characteristics such as dry matter content, starch levels, and resistance to bruising, is often better when organic fertilizers are included. In particular, studies show that potatoes fertilized with a combination of organic manure and inorganic nutrients exhibit better nutrient profiles, including higher vitamin C and protein content. These potatoes are also more resilient to storage-related issues and maintain their quality for longer periods compared to those fertilized solely with inorganic inputs (Petropoulos et al., 2020).

6.3 Integrating Organic and Inorganic Sources for Balanced Nutrient Supply

A balanced nutrient supply is essential for achieving high yields and maintaining soil health in potato cultivation, and integrating organic and inorganic fertilizers is an effective strategy to achieve this. Combining the fast-acting nutrients provided by inorganic fertilizers with the long-term soil improvement benefits of organic fertilizers offers a synergistic effect, leading to better crop performance. Studies indicate that applying a mixture of 25%~50% organic fertilizer (such as compost or poultry manure) with 50%~75% inorganic fertilizer optimizes potato yield and quality while maintaining soil fertility. This approach ensures that crops receive an immediate nutrient boost from the inorganic fertilizer while the organic fertilizer continues to release nutrients throughout the growing season (Chebotarev et al., 2021).

Integrated fertilizer systems also contribute to improved soil structure and reduced environmental risks. Organic fertilizers, such as farmyard manure, help buffer the soil against the acidifying effects of inorganic fertilizers, while also increasing the organic carbon content in the soil. This combination helps maintain soil microbial activity and enhances nutrient cycling, leading to more efficient nutrient use and reduced losses due to leaching or volatilization. Integrating organic and inorganic fertilizers is also a cost-effective method for smallholder farmers, as it allows for reduced reliance on expensive inorganic inputs while maintaining high productivity (Yimer, 2022).

Moreover, research has demonstrated that integrated fertilizer applications reduce the accumulation of harmful compounds, such as nitrates, in the potato tubers, improving food safety and quality. By incorporating organic sources like compost or manure, potato farmers can achieve better long-term sustainability, ensuring that soil fertility is preserved while also maximizing crop yields (Nunes et al., 2020).

7 Advanced Fertilization Techniques

7.1 Controlled-release fertilizers and their role in sustained nutrient delivery

Controlled-release fertilizers (CRFs) are engineered to provide a slow and consistent release of nutrients over time, aligning with the crop's nutrient demands throughout the growing season. These fertilizers are coated with materials like polymers or sulfur, which control the release rate based on environmental factors such as soil temperature and moisture. In potato cultivation, the application of CRFs such as polymer-coated urea (PCU) has shown to improve nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) by ensuring that nitrogen is released gradually, reducing the likelihood of nutrient losses through leaching or volatilization. Research indicates that CRFs can increase potato yield by up to 26%, as well as improve tuber quality, including increased starch and vitamin C content (Gao et al., 2015).

One of the key advantages of CRFs is their ability to provide a steady nutrient supply during critical growth stages, reducing the need for multiple fertilizer applications and ensuring that the plant has access to essential nutrients throughout the growing season. This reduces labor and application costs, while also minimizing the environmental impact associated with conventional fertilizers. Studies have shown that CRFs improve nitrogen uptake and reduce nutrient losses, contributing to better crop growth and higher yields without the environmental risks of over-fertilization (Rahman et al., 2021).

Moreover, controlled-release fertilizers help reduce the environmental footprint of agriculture by preventing nutrient runoff into nearby water bodies, which can cause eutrophication and other environmental problems. The extended release pattern of CRFs is particularly beneficial in areas with high rainfall, where nutrients can otherwise be washed away from the soil before the crop has a chance to absorb them. This leads to better sustainability in crop production systems by increasing nutrient use efficiency and reducing pollution (Remya et al., 2021).

7.2 Foliar fertilization as a supplement during critical growth stages

Foliar fertilization is an advanced technique that involves applying nutrients directly to the leaves of plants, allowing for rapid absorption and efficient nutrient use. This method is particularly useful during critical growth stages when nutrient demand is high, or when soil conditions limit nutrient uptake through the roots. In potato cultivation, foliar fertilization has been shown to enhance growth and yield, especially when applied during key periods such as tuber initiation and bulking. Foliar applications of essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) ensure that the plant receives the required nutrients without delays, leading to better tuber formation and overall productivity (Elshamy et al., 2019).

Foliar fertilization offers the advantage of bypassing soil-related issues such as poor nutrient availability, compaction, or drought, which can inhibit root absorption. This technique allows for more targeted and efficient nutrient application, as the nutrients are absorbed directly through the leaf tissues and transported to where they are needed most in the plant. Research has shown that foliar-applied nutrients can improve nutrient use efficiency, reduce nutrient wastage, and result in higher crop yields. In potatoes, foliar fertilization has been linked to improvements in tuber quality, including enhanced starch content and dry matter concentration (Dang et al., 2022).

7.3 Use of Fertigation to Improve Nutrient Efficiency

Fertigation, the practice of applying fertilizers through irrigation systems, is a highly efficient method that integrates nutrient delivery with water management, ensuring that both water and nutrients are applied directly to the root zone of the plants. This method is particularly effective in enhancing nutrient use efficiency in potato cultivation, as it allows for precise control over nutrient application, reducing wastage and improving crop uptake. Fertigation has been shown to increase potato yields by optimizing the timing and distribution of nutrients, aligning closely with the crop's growth stages and water needs (Shrestha et al., 2023).

By delivering nutrients in smaller, more frequent doses, fertigation reduces the risk of nutrient leaching, particularly in sandy or highly permeable soils where conventional fertilization methods often lead to significant nutrient losses. Studies have demonstrated that fertigation can improve nitrogen use efficiency, reduce nitrate leaching, and result in higher-quality tubers with improved starch content and better dry matter concentration. Fertigation also allows for more precise nutrient management, ensuring that plants receive the right amount of nutrients at the right time, which is essential for maximizing yield and minimizing environmental impact (Bykin et al., 2021).

Another advantage of fertigation is its adaptability to different irrigation systems, such as drip or sprinkler irrigation, which are commonly used in potato production. This integration of fertilization and irrigation helps to save water and reduce labor costs, making it a cost-effective option for farmers. Moreover, fertigation systems can be easily adjusted based on real-time soil moisture and nutrient data, allowing for a more responsive and efficient approach to crop management. This results in improved crop performance, higher nutrient use efficiency, and better environmental sustainability (Rahman et al., 2021).

8 Environmental and Economic Implications of Fertilizer Use

8.1 Impact of excessive fertilization on soil health and water systems

Excessive fertilization, especially with nitrogen-based fertilizers, can have detrimental effects on soil health. Overapplication of nitrogen leads to the accumulation of nitrate in the soil, which can disrupt the natural balance of soil microorganisms. This imbalance often results in reduced microbial activity, which is critical for maintaining soil organic matter and nutrient cycling. Over time, continuous use of excessive fertilizers depletes the soil of its natural fertility, reducing its ability to support crops in a sustainable manner. Acidification is another issue that arises from over-fertilization, particularly in soils already low in buffering capacity, which can make essential nutrients less available to plants (Pandey and Diwan, 2018).

The negative impact of over-fertilization extends beyond the soil to water systems. Nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields can lead to the eutrophication of rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. Eutrophication, caused by the excess nutrients in water bodies, stimulates harmful algal blooms, which consume oxygen and create dead zones, severely affecting aquatic ecosystems. These algal blooms also pose health risks to humans, as they can produce toxins that contaminate drinking water supplies and harm fish populations, leading to economic losses in fisheries and tourism industries (Rahman and Zhang, 2018).

Moreover, leaching of nitrates into groundwater is a critical issue in many agricultural regions. Nitrates are highly mobile in soils, and their excessive presence can result in groundwater contamination, making it unsafe for drinking and agricultural use. High nitrate levels in drinking water are linked to serious health conditions such as methemoglobinemia or "blue baby syndrome" in infants. Reducing the use of excess fertilizers and employing precision farming techniques are essential steps to mitigate the impact of over-fertilization on both soil health and water quality (Li et al., 2018).

8.2 Economic Analysis of Different Fertilization Strategies to Maximize Return on Investment

A cost-effective approach to fertilization focuses on optimizing the application rates to achieve the highest yield while minimizing input costs. Research on nitrogen use in potato farming shows that applying nitrogen at economically optimal nitrogen fertilizer rates (EONFR) results in the most efficient yield gains relative to costs (Ding, 2024). Farmers often apply more fertilizer than necessary, leading to diminishing returns and higher costs without a proportional increase in yield. By using EONFR, studies show that a 50% reduction in nitrogen use may lead to only a 16% drop in yield, while drastically reducing costs and increasing nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) (Ierna and Mauromicale, 2019).

Precision agriculture is another strategy that helps optimize fertilizer use and maximize return on investment (ROI). Precision farming technologies, such as soil testing and real-time nutrient monitoring, enable farmers to apply fertilizers only where and when they are needed, reducing waste and unnecessary input costs. Studies in potato farming have demonstrated that precision fertilization techniques can increase yields by 10%~15% while reducing fertilizer usage by up to 30%. These gains not only lower the cost of production but also improve environmental sustainability by minimizing nutrient losses to the environment (Mosquera et al., 2019).

In addition to precision agriculture, the use of integrated nutrient management (INM) strategies-combining organic and inorganic fertilizers-has proven to be economically beneficial. INM reduces dependency on costly chemical fertilizers by incorporating organic amendments such as compost or manure. Studies have shown that using organic fertilizers alongside reduced rates of inorganic fertilizers can sustain or even increase yields while lowering fertilizer costs, leading to a more profitable and sustainable farming system (Li et al., 2021).

8.3 Sustainable fertilization practices to balance productivity with environmental responsibility

Sustainable fertilization practices aim to achieve a balance between maximizing crop productivity and minimizing environmental damage. One approach is site-specific nutrient management (SSNM), which tailors fertilizer applications based on specific soil and crop conditions. SSNM uses data from soil tests and crop monitoring systems to apply nutrients at the right time, place, and amount, reducing the risk of nutrient loss while ensuring that crops receive adequate nutrition. This practice not only improves yields but also prevents the overuse of fertilizers, mitigating the environmental risks associated with excessive nutrient runoff (Eeswaran et al., 2016).

The integration of organic and inorganic fertilizers is another sustainable practice that enhances both productivity and soil health. Organic fertilizers, such as manure or compost, improve soil structure, increase microbial activity, and enhance water retention, while inorganic fertilizers provide the readily available nutrients needed for high crop yields(Zhu and Shen, 2024). By combining these two types of fertilizers, farmers can reduce the overall need for synthetic inputs, thereby lowering the environmental impact while maintaining or improving crop productivity. Research shows that integrating bio-organic fertilizers with chemical fertilizers significantly boosts potato yields and improves soil fertility over the long term (Li et al., 2021).

Sustainable fertilization practices also focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with fertilizer use, particularly nitrous oxide (N₂O), a potent greenhouse gas. Practices such as the use of controlled-release fertilizers (CRFs) and precision nutrient application can significantly reduce N₂O emissions by synchronizing nutrient availability with plant uptake. These methods not only help maintain high crop yields but also contribute to global climate change mitigation efforts by reducing the environmental footprint of agricultural practices (Gao et al., 2015).

9 Future Directions and Research Needs

Future directions in fertilization research primarily focus on emerging technologies, genetic improvements, and refining existing fertilization practices. Technologies such as drone-based monitoring and artificial intelligence (AI) hold great potential for precision agriculture. Drones equipped with multispectral or hyperspectral cameras can monitor crop nitrogen status and detect nutrient deficiencies in real time, optimizing fertilizer efficiency. Additionally, AI algorithms, combined with sensor data, provide real-time recommendations to farmers, enhancing crop yields while reducing environmental impacts. However, barriers such as high costs, limited data infrastructure, and the complexity of technology usage remain. Future research should aim to overcome these challenges and promote wider adoption, especially among smallholder farmers.

In genetic improvement, technologies such as CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing are being explored to enhance nutrient use efficiency (NUE) in potato varieties. Researchers are identifying genes involved in nitrogen metabolism to improve NUE, ensuring high yields with less fertilizer input. Genomic screening has also been used to identify potato varieties with improved root architecture, enabling more efficient nutrient absorption from deeper soil layers. Continued research is needed to integrate traditional breeding with modern genomics to develop more resilient, high-yielding potato varieties that can thrive with reduced nutrient inputs.

Optimizing fertilization techniques is another critical area of research, particularly in the use of fertigation, which enhances nutrient use efficiency by delivering nutrients through irrigation systems. Future research should explore the best combinations of organic and inorganic fertilizers to improve soil health and reduce environmental impacts. Additionally, climate change’s impact on nutrient requirements and fertilizer efficiency needs further investigation to ensure that fertilization schedules and rates are adapted to shifting environmental conditions, maintaining sustainable crop production.

Acknowledgments

I am deeply grateful to Professor R. Cai for his multiple reviews of this paper and for his constructive revision suggestions. I would also like to thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their valuable comments and recommendations.

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